الآثار الإقليمية والدولية للتنافس الروسي- التركي في منطقة شرق البحر المتوسط (2000- 2025)

نايري عبدالله نعيم

doi:10.30907/jcopolicy.vi71.916

Authors

Nairi Abdullah Naeem University of Information Technology and Communication/ Businesses Informatics College/ Department of Informatics Systems Management

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.30907/jcopolicy.vi71.916

Keywords:

Russia, Turkey, Eastern Mediterranean, energy security, Maritime Homeland Doctrine, Water Conflict

Abstract

This study examines the Russian-Turkish competition in the Eastern Mediterranean, one of the world's most strategically pivotal regions. The central question of this study is: to what extent does this Russian-Turkish competition contribute to shaping the regional and international landscape of influence? And does this competition influence the geopolitical shifts in the Eastern Mediterranean?

The study employs two complementary methodologies: a descriptive-analytical approach to describe the nature of Russian-Turkish relations and analyze their dimensions, and a comparative approach to compare the roles and positions of Russia and Turkey on issues of common interest. This approach identifies points of conflict, competition, and cooperation in the Eastern Mediterranean, particularly concerning Cyprus, Palestine, the Kurds, Syria, Lebanon, energy, and security.

The findings conclude that the Russian-Turkish competition has contributed to reshaping the balance of power in the Eastern Mediterranean. This has led to an imbalance in the region, impacting the interests of major and regional powers in the area. Stability in the Eastern Mediterranean is not merely a regional choice but a strategic necessity for global security and stability. Russia seeks to bolster its political, military, and economic influence to counter the West. Turkey, for its part, seeks to bolster its position as an influential regional power in the area, particularly by establishing itself as a transit hub for energy supplies to Europe. Consequently, the competition between Russia and Turkey reflects their respective interests and their desire to create a strategic foothold that serves their vital interests and expands their influence in the region.

References

قائمة المصادر:

ابو القاسم، محمود حمدي. 2015. "تداعيات خطرة: أبعاد التدخل العسكري الروسي في سوريا". مركز الروابط للبحوث والدراسات الاستراتيجية. 18 نوفمبر، 2015.

https://rawabetcenter.com/archives/15132

احمد، وليد محمود. 2007. "النزاع التركي_ اليوناني على بحر أيجه في ضوء القانون الدولي للبحار." مجلة الدراسات الإقليمية 4، عدد.7 (كانون الثاني): 223-255.

https://doi.org/10.33899/regs.2007.29441

احمد، وليد محمود. 2011. "النشاط الروسي في قبرص بعد الحرب الباردة." مجلة الدراسات الإقليمية 8، عدد.22 (ابريل): 249-266. https://doi.org/10.33899/regs.2011.6418

الباسوسي، أحمد زكريا. 2018." تأثيرات تهديد أمن الطاقة على الصراع الدولي على الغاز الطبيعي: دراسة حالة منطقة حوض شرق البحر المتوسط." أطروحة دكتوراة.، جامعة القاهرة/ كلية الاقتصاد والعلوم السياسية.

بهلول، محمد، وحكيم غريب. 2019. "استراتيجية روسيا الاتحادية تجاه الحرب في سوريا 2011_2018." مجلة الآداب والعلوم الاجتماعية 16، عدد.2 (حزيران): 172-185.

https://asjp.cerist.dz/en/article/95636

بن ناصر، ليلى. 2015." دور الولايات المتحدة الامريكية في الميدان الامني لمنطقة البحر المتوسط من 2001 – 2011." رسالة ماجستير.، جامعة الجيلالي بونعامة – خميس مليانة/ كلية الحقوق والعلوم السياسية.

الجزيرة نت. 2025." اعترافات الدول بفلسطين تتسع وتنديد بإسرائيل في الأمم المتحدة." 23سبتمبر، 2025.

https://www.aljazeera.net/news/2025/9/23/%d9%8a%d9%88%d9%85-%d8%aa%d8%a7%d8%b1%d9%8a%d8%ae%d9%8a-%d9%84%d9%81%d9%84%d8%b3%d8%b7%d9%8a%d9%86-%d9%88%d8%aa%d9%86%d8%af%d9%8a%d8%af-%d8%a8%d8%a5%d8%b3%d8%b1%d8%a7%d8%a6%d9%8a%d9%84

حمو، جوان. 2017. سورية في المعايير الجيوسياسية الروسية وموقع كرد سورية فيها. الدوحة: مركز حرمون للدراسات المعاصرة.

خولي، معمر فيصل. 2014. العلاقات التركية_ الروسية من آرث الماضي الى أفاق المستقبل. الدوحة: المركز العربي للأبحاث ودراسة السياسات.

دهشان، أحمد. 2023. "الموقف الروسي من الحرب الإسرائيلية على غزة". مركز أبعاد للدراسات الاستراتيجية. 21 تشرين الثاني، 2023.

https://www.dimensionscenter.net/ar/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%88%D9%82%D9%81-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%8A-%D9%85%D9%86-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%B1%D8%A8-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D8%B3%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%8A%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%89-%D8%BA%D8%B2%D8%A9

دياب، أحمد. 2013. "هل تسترجع روسيا تاريخها السوفياتي في الشرق الأوسط". المجلة. 11 اكتوبر، 2023.

https://www.majalla.com/2013/10/article55248205/%D9%87%D9%84-%D8%AA%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%AC%D8%B9-%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A7-%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE%D9%87%D8%A7-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%81%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%8A-%D9%81%D9%8A-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B4%D8%B1%D9%82-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%B7%D8%9F

سكاي نيوز عربية. 2025. "روسيا تعلق على موجة الاعتراف بدولة فلسطينية". 22 سبتمبر، 2025.

https://www.skynewsarabia.com/world/1821994-%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A7-%D8%AA%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%82-%D9%85%D9%88%D8%AC%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%81-%D8%A8%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A9-%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D8%B7%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9

صالحة، سمير. 2024. "الموقف التركي من حرب غزة واتجاهاتهُ المستقبلية".مؤسسة الدراسات الفلسطينية. 9 كانون الثاني، 2024.

https://www.palestine-studies.org/ar/node/1655030

عبد النبي، محمد أحمد. 2015. "متغيرات جيواقتصادية: نفط شرق المتوسط والأمن البحري الإقليمي". المستقبل للابحاث والدراسات المتقدمة. 16 ابريل، 2015.

https://futureuae.com/mar.php/Mainpage/Item/711/%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%BA%D9%8A%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA-%D8%AC%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%82%D8%AA%D8%B5%D8%A7%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D9%86%D9%81%D8%B7-%D8%B4%D8%B1%D9%82-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%B7-%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%85%D9%86-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D8%AD%D8%B1%D9%8A-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D9%82%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%85%D9%8A

عبد الحي، وليد. 2024. "الاستراتيجية الروسية تجاه طوفان الأقصى والعدوان الإسرائيلي على قطاع غزة". إضاءات سياسية. العدد.9 (تموز): 1-4.

https://www.alzaytouna.net/arabic/data/attachments/AcademicArticles/Political-Insights-9_Walid-AbdalHay_7-24.pdf

عثماني، بسمة. 2016. "التنافس الامني الامريكي الروسي في منطقة المتوسط." رسالة ماجستير.، جامعة العربي بن مهيدي – أم البواقي/ كلية الحقوق والعلوم السياسية.

عسال، محمد. 2015." السياسة الأمنية التركية بعد الحرب الباردة الرهانات والتحديات." رسالة ماجستير.، جامعة قاصدي مرباح_ ورقلة /كلية الحقوق والعلوم السياسية.

عمار، بالة. 2012. "مكانة الولايات المتحدة ضمن الترتيبات الأمنية في منطقة البحر الأبيض المتوسط." اطروحة دكتوراة.، جامعة باتنة/ كلية الحقوق.

كرامر، هاينتس. 2002. تركيا المتغيرة تبحث عن ثوب جديد. ترجمة: فاضل جنكر. الرياض:مكتبة العبيكان.

لارابي، اف، ستيفن، ولان أو. ليسر. 2010. سياسة تركيا الخارجية في عصر الشك والغموض. ترجمة: محمود احمد عزت البياتي.بغداد: بيت الحكمة العراقي.

محمد، دينا شيرين. 2016. الصراع التركي_ اليوناني حول قبرص الأسباب وطرق الحل. برلين: المركز الديمقراطي العربي.

محمد، هند محروس. 2023." تأثير العلاقات التركية_ الإسرائيلية على القضية الفلسطينية." مجلة قضايا سياسية، العدد.75 (كانون الأول): 446-465.

https://iasj.rdd.edu.iq/journals/uploads/2024/12/06/c0b5a1c494d447c785f92a17e1822595.pdf

محمود، أحمد عبد العزيز. 2012. تركيا في القرن العشرين. مصر: المكتب الجامعي الحديث.

محمود، صدفة محمد. 2019." الدور الروسي وانعكاساته على نفوذ ايران في لبنان." مجلة الدراسات الإيرانية 3، عدد.9 (ابريل): 61-77.

https://search.emarefa.net/ar/detail/BIM-1231610-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%B1-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%8A-%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B9%D9%83%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%87-%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%89-%D9%86%D9%81%D9%88%D8%B0-%D8%A5%D9%8A%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86-%D9%81%D9%8A-%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%86

مركز الجزيرة للدراسات. 2024. " قيود خارجية: انعطاف الموقف التركي من غزة". 29 فبراير، 2024.

https://studies.aljazeera.net/ar/article/5863

مركز الجزيرة للدرسات. 2013." تركيا وروسيا: تقارب اقتصادي وتباعد سياسي". 30 ابريل، 2013.

https://studies.aljazeera.net/ar/article/506

المركز العربي للابحاث ودراسة السياسات. 2015. "حدود التدخل العسكري الروسي في سورية وآفاقه".1 سبتمبر، 2015.

https://www.dohainstitute.org/ar/lists/ACRPS-PDFDocumentLibrary/document_6CDAD7EE.pdf

مركز سمت للدراسات. 2018."النفوذ الصيني في الشرق الاوسط كمون ام ترقب؟". 8 فبراير، 2018.

https://smtcenter.net/archives/slider/%d8%a7%d9%84%d9%86%d9%81%d9%88%d8%b0-%d8%a7%d9%84%d8%b5%d9%8a%d9%86%d9%8a-%d9%81%d9%8a-%d8%a7%d9%84%d8%b4%d8%b1%d9%82-%d8%a7%d9%84%d8%a3%d9%88%d8%b3%d8%b7-%d9%83%d9%85%d9%88%d9%86-%d8%a3%d9%85

مشرف، عبداللطيف. 2019." البحر المتوسط والنفوذ الأجنبي... الاسطول السادس الأميركي حقيقية أم خيال في الصراع الجيوسياسي". مركز أبحاث كاتيخون. 2 شباط، 2019.

https://katehon.com/ar/article/lbhr-lmtwst-wlnfwdh-ljnby-lstwl-lsds-lmryky-hqyq-m-khyl-fy-lsr-ljywsysy

الموشير، مشعل بن عبد الرحمن. 2011." أزمة المياه ومستقبل العلاقات العربية التركية بعد وصول الحركة الإسلامية إلى السلطة في تركيا." أطروحة دكتوراة.، الجامعة اللبنانية/كلية العلوم السياسية.

مصلوح، كريم. 2013. التعاون والتنافس في المتوسط. لبنان: الدار العربية للعلوم ناشرون.

نوتي، هانا. 2025. "روسيا لم تنته بعد من سوريا". اندبندنت عربية.10 أكتوبر،2025.

https://www.independentarabia.com/node/633734/%D8%A2%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A1/%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A7-%D9%84%D9%85-%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%AA%D9%87-%D8%A8%D8%B9%D8%AF-%D9%85%D9%86-%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7

List of References:

Abdel Nabi, Muhammad Ahmed. 2015."Geoeconomic Variables: Eastern Mediterranean Oil and Regional Maritime Security". Future Center for Advanced Research and Studies. April 16, 2015.https://futureuae.com/arAE/Mainpage/Item/711/%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%BA%D9%8A%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%AC%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%82%D8%AA%D8%B5%D8%A7%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D9%86%D9%81%D8%B7-%D8%B4%D8%B1%D9%82-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%B7-%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%86-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D8%AD%D8%B1%D9%8A-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%82%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%85%D9%8A (in Arabic).

Abdel Hay, Walid. 2024. "The Russian Strategy Towards the Al-Aqsa Flood and the Israeli Aggression on the Gaza Strip." Political Insights, no. 9 (July): 1-4. https://www.alzaytouna.net/arabic/data/attachments/AcademicArticles/Political-Insights-9_Walid-AbdalHay_7-24.pdf (in Arabic).

Abu al-Qasim, Mahmoud Hamdi. 2015. "Dangerous Repercussions: Dimensions of the Russian Military Intervention in Syria." Al-Rawabet Center for Research and Strategic Studies. November 18, 2015. https://rawabetcenter.com/archives/15132 (in Arabic)

Adar, Sinem, Muriel Asseburg, Hamidreza Azizi, Margarete Klein, and Guido Steinberg. 2025. “The Full Of The Assad Regime: Regional and International Power Shifts.” German Institute For International And Security Affairs. February 2, 2025. https://www.swp-berlin.org/en/publication/the-fall-of-the-assad-regime-regional-and-international-power-shifts

Ahmed, Walid Mahmoud. 2007. “The Turkish-Greek Conflict over the Aegean Sea in Light of the International Law of the Sea”. Journal of Regional Studies 4, no.7 (January): 223-255.https://doi.org/10.33899/regs.2007.29441 (in Arabic)

Ahmed, Walid Mahmoud. 2011. "Russian Activity in Cyprus After the Cold War." Journal of the Center for Regional Studies 8, no.22 (April ): 249-266.https://doi.org/10.33899/regs.2011.6418 (in Arabic)

Al-Mawshir, Mishal bin Abdul Rahman. 2011."The Water Crisis and the Future of Arab-Turkish Relations After the Islamic Movement Came to Power in Turkey". PhD. Dissertation., Lebanese University/Faculty of Political Science.(in Arabic).

Ammar. Bala. 2012. "The Position of the United States within the Security Arrangements in the Mediterranean Region". PhD Diss., University of Batna/ Faculty of Law. (in Arabic)

Arab Center for Research and Policy Studies. 2015."The Limits and Prospects of Russian Military Intervention in Syria".1 September, 2015.https://www.dohainstitute.org/ar/lists/ACRPS-PDFDocumentLibrary/document_6CDAD7EE.pdf (in Arabic)

Alexandrova -Arbatova, Nadia. 2018. "Great powers involvement in Eastern Mediterranean".Eastern Mediterranean Policy Note, no.29. Nicosia: University of Nicosia. 1 August 2018. https://www.unic.ac.cy/wp-content/uploads/sites/41/EMPN_29.pdf

Assal, Mohamed. 2015."Turkish Security Policy After the Cold War: Stakes and Challenges" Master's Thesis., Kasdi Merbah University – Ouargla/ Faculty of Law and Political Science. (in Arabic)

Al-Basousi. Ahmed Zakaria. 2018. "The Impact of the Threat to Energy Security on the International Conflict over Natural Gas: A Case Study of the Eastern Mediterranean Basin". PhD Diss,. Cairo University/Faculty of Economics and Political Science. (in Arabic)

Al Jazeera Center for Studies. 2024. "External Constraints: The Shift in the Turkish Position on Gaza". February 29, 2024. https://studies.aljazeera.net/ar/article/5863 (in Arabic).

Al Jazeera Center for Studies. 2013. "Turkiye and Russia: Economic Convergence and Political Divergence". April 30, 2013. https://studies.aljazeera.net/ar/article/506 (in Arabic)

Al Jazeera Net. 2025. "International recognition of Palestine widens, and condemnation of Israel at the United Nations" . September 23 , 2025. https://www.aljazeera.net/news/2025/9/23/%d9%8a%d9%88%d9%85-%d8%aa%d8%a7%d8%b1%d9%8a%d8%ae%d9%8a-%d9%84%d9%81%d9%84%d8%b3%d8%b7%d9%8a%d9%86-%d9%88%d8%aa%d9%86%d8%af%d9%8a%d8%af-%d8%a8%d8%a5%d8%b3%d8%b1%d8%a7%d8%a6%d9%8a%d9%84 (in Arabic)

Bahloul, Mohamed, and Hakim Gharib. 2019. "The Russian Federation's Strategy Towards the War in Syria 2011-2018". Journal of Arts and Social Sciences16, no.2 (June) : 172-185. https://asjp.cerist.dz/en/article/95636 (in Arabic)

Borshchevskaya, Anna. 2020."The Kurdish Role in Russia Middle East Power play". The Washington Institute For Near East Policy. July 29, 2020. https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/kurdish-role-russias-middle-east-power-play

Ben Nasser, Leila. 2015. "The Role of the United States in the Security Field of the Mediterranean Region from 2001-2011". Master's Thesis., University of Djillali Bounaama - Khemis Miliana/Faculty of Law and Political Science. (in Arabic).

Cropsey, seth, and Eric Brown. 2014." Energy:The west's strategic opportunity in the Eastern Mediterranean". Hudson lnstitute. December 11, 2014. https://www.hudson.org/energy/energy-the-west-s-strategic-opportunity-in-the-eastern-mediterranean

Dahshan, Ahmed. 2023. “The Russian Position on the Israeli War on Gaza”. Abaad Center for Strategic Studies. 21October, 2023. https://www.dimensionscenter.net/ar/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%88%D9%82%D9%81-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%8A-%D9%85%D9%86-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%B1%D8%A8-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D8%B3%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%8A%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%89-%D8%BA%D8%B2%D8%A9 (in Arabic).

Dalacoura, Katerina. 2021. “Turkish foreign policy in the Middle East: power projection and post-ideological politics”. International Affairs 97, no.4 )July(: 1125-1142. https://doi.org/10.1093/ia/iiab082

Darvishvand, Hamid.2023."Geopolitical analysis of Mediterranean competitions using game theory". Revista CIMEXUS 18, no.2 (Decrmber): 85-105. https://doi.org/10.33110/cimexus180205

Dalay, Galip. 2021."Turkey, Europe, and the Eastern Mediterranean: Charting a way out of the current deadlock". The Brookings Institution. January 28, 2021. https://www.brookings.edu/articles/turkey-europe-and-the-eastern-mediterranean-charting-a-way-out-of-the-current-deadlock/

Diab, Ahmed. 2013. “Will Russia Revive its Soviet History in the Middle East?”. Al-Majala.11 October, 2013. https://www.majalla.com/2013/10/article55248205/%D9%87%D9%84-%D8%AA%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%AC%D8%B9-%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A7-%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE%D9%87%D8%A7-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%81%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%8A-%D9%81%D9%8A-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B4%D8%B1%D9%82-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%B7%D8%9F (in Arabic)

Jewish Institute for National Security of America (JINSA). 2019. Sea Changes: U.S. Challenges and Opportunities in the Eastern Mediterranean. Washington, DC: JINSA. https://jinsa.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/Sea-Changes-U.S.-Challenges-and-Opportunities-in-the-Eastern-Mediterranean.pdf.

Evaghorou, Evaghoras. 2024. "Russian Foreign Policy Towards Cyprus: A Comprehensive Analysis Of Contemporary Relations". Polarities 5, no.2 (December): 58-80. https://doi.org/10.15170/psk.2024.05.02.04

Fraser, Suzan. 2025. “The PKK Kurdish Militant Group Will Disarm And Disband ASPart Of A Peace Initiative With Turkey”. AP News. May 12, 2025. https://apnews.com/article/turkey-kurdish-militants-disarm-9f4347a04cba48ceb509d2e82023a19e#

Gatopoulos, Derek. 2025. “Greece and Egypt reaffirm their commitment to an undersea power cable.” AP News. May 7, 2025. https://apnews.com/article/greece-egypt-energy-mitsotakis-df044ab61c0d0d5c888fefe678c31941

Ghiselli, Andrea. 2017." Reflecting on China Presence in the Mediterranean Region". Torino world affairs institute. September 6, 2017. https://www.twai.it/journal/tnote-41/

Guofu, Li. 2013. “China: An Emerging Power in the Mediterranean.” In The Mediterranean Region in a Multipolar World: Evolving Relations with Russia, China, India, and Brazil, edited by Daniela Huber, Vladimir Bakhtin, Li Guofu, P.R. Kumaraswamy, and Arlene Clemesha, 11-20. Washington, DC: The German Marshall Fund of the United States. https://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep18967.5?seq=1

Hamou, Joan. 2017. Syria in Russian Geopolitical Standards and the Position of the Syrian Kurds within Them. Doha: Harmoon Center for Contemporary Studies. (in Arabic)

Khouli, Muammar Faisal. 2014. Turkish-Russian Relations: From the Legacy of the Past to the Horizons of the Future. Doha: Arab Center for Research and Policy Studies. (in Arabic).

Kramer, Heintz. 2002. Changing Turkey Seeks a New Appearance. Translated by: Fadel Janker. Riyadh: Al-Obaikan Library. (in Arabic)

Larabi F, Stevin and Lan O. Lesser. 2010. Turkey's Foreign Policy in an Age of Doubt and Ambiguity. translated by Mahmoud Ahmed Ezzat Al-Bayati. Baghdad: Iraqi House of Wisdom. (in Arabic).

Legucka, Agnieszka. 2020. “Russia’s Eastern Mediterranean Policy”.The Polish Institute of International Affairs PISM. May 22, 2020. https://pism.pl/publications/Russias_Eastern_Mediterranean_Policy

Lesser, lan. O. 2009. The united states and the mediterrranean :Anew strategic Context. Malta: MEDAC Publications in Mediterranean IR and Diplomacy. https://www.um.edu.mt/library/oar/bitstream/123456789/46165/1/The_United_States_and_the_Mediterranean_a_new_strategic_context_2009.pdf

Linden, Ronald H. 2018." the New Sea People: China in the Mediterranea." instituto Affari internazionali. https://www.iai.it/sites/default/files/iaip1814.pdf

Mahmoud, Ahmed Abdel Aziz. 2012. Turkey in the Twentieth Century. Egypt: Modern University Office. (in Arabic).

Mahmoud, Sadaf Muhammad. 2019. "The Russian Role and its Repercussions on Iran's Influence in Lebanon". Journal of Iranian Studies 3, no.9 (April): 61-77. https://rasanahiiis.org/wpcontent/uploads/2020/01/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B9%D9%83%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%87%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%89%D9%86%D9%81%D9%88%D8%B0-%D8%A7%D9%95%D9%8A%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86-%D9%81%D9%8A-%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%86.pdf (in Arabic)

Maslouh. Karim. 2013. Cooperation and Competition in the Mediterranean. Lebanon: Arab House for Science Publishers. (in Arabic)

Mazis, Ioannis, Th. 2018. "Turkey, Israel, Greece, Reshuffling in the Eastern Mediterranean". Civitas Gentium 6, no.1 (2018): 13-80. http://scholar.uoa.gr/sites/default/files/yianmazis/files/1._mazis.pdf

Mohamed, Dina Sherine. 2016. The Turkish-Greek Conflict over Cyprus: Causes and Solutions. Berlin: Arab Democratic Center. (in Arabic)

Mohamed, Hind Mahrous. 2023. "The Impact of Turkish-Israeli Relations on the Palestinian Cause "Political Issues Journal 22. no.75 (December): 446-465. https://iasj.rdd.edu.iq/journals/uploads/2024/12/06/c0b5a1c494d447c785f92a17e1822595.pdf (in Arabic)

Mushrif, Abdul Latif. 2019. "The Mediterranean and Foreign Influence... The US Sixth Fleet: Reality or Fiction?". Katehon Intelligence Center. February 2, 2019. https://katehon.com/ar/article/lbhr-lmtwst-wlnfwdh-ljnby-lstwl-lsds-lmryky-hqyq-m-khyl-fy-lsr-ljywsysy (in Arabic).

Naughty, Hana. 2025. "Russia is not finished with Syria yet". Independent Arabia. October 10, 2025. https://www.independentarabia.com/node/633734/%D8%A2%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A1/%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A7-%D9%84%D9%85-%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%AA%D9%87-%D8%A8%D8%B9%D8%AF-%D9%85%D9%86-%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7 (In Arabic)

Ortega, Aurora, and Matthew Levitt. 2023." Hizbullah and Russia Nascent Alliance." RUSI. May 23, 2023. https://www.rusi.org/explore-our-research/publications/commentary/hizbullah-and-russias-nascent-alliance?_kx=BneFieUuam0m6BoehcgWIzaiLf3qA5qf_OvFQ9SPQj0%3D.L87CGh

Othmani, Basma. 2016. "The American-Russian Security Competition in the Mediterranean Region". Master's Thesis,.Larbi Ben M'hidi University – Oum El Bouaghi/ Faculty of Law and Political Science. (in Arabic)

Outzen, Rich. 2022. "Claw-Lock: An Assessment of Turkish Counter-PKK Operations in Northern Iraq in 2022." Terrorism Monitor 20, no.16 (Augest):1-6. https://www.ecoi.net/en/document/2078332.html

Ozsoy, Bahar. 2024. "Cyprus And Eastern Mediterranean Issues In Turkiye Reports." International Journal of Social and Humanities Sciences 8, no.2 (Augest):103-134. https://dergipark.org.tr/en/download/article-file/4259947

Saleha, Samir. 2024. "The Turkish Position on the Gaza War and its Future Trends". Institute for Palestine Studies. January 9, 2024. https://www.palestine-studies.org/ar/node/1655030 (in Arabic).

Smitt Institute for Studies. 2018." Chinese Influence in the Middle East: Latent or Expected?". February 8, 2018.

https://smtcenter.net/archives/slider/%d8%a7%d9%84%d9%86%d9%81%d9%88%d8%b0-%d8%a7%d9%84%d8%b5%d9%8a%d9%86%d9%8a-%d9%81%d9%8a-%d8%a7%d9%84%d8%b4%d8%b1%d9%82-%d8%a7%d9%84%d8%a3%d9%88%d8%b3%d8%b7-%d9%83%d9%85%d9%88%d9%86-%d8%a3%d9%85 (in Arabic)

Sorenson, David S. 2013." Dilemmas For US Strategy US Options in Syria." Parameters43, no.3(Autumn):4-15. https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA598569.pdf

Sky News Arabia. 2025. "Russia comments on the wave of recognition of a Palestinian state". September 22, 2025. https://www.skynewsarabia.com/world/1821994-%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A7-%D8%AA%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%82-%D9%85%D9%88%D8%AC%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%81-%D8%A8%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A9-%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D8%B7%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9 (in Arabic)

Tabler, Andrew J., and Soner Cagaptay. 2016. "The PKK Could Spark Turkish-Russian Military Escalation." The Washington Institute For Near East Policy. May 25, 2016. https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/pkk-could-spark-turkish-russian-military-escalation

UN General Assembly. 1947. "Future government of Palestine, A/RES/181". 29 November, 1947. https://www.refworld.org/legal/resolution/unga/1947/en/9440

Vogler, Sarah, and Eric V. Thompson. 2015. Gas Discoveries in the Eastern Mediterranean: Implications for Regional Maritime Security. Washington, DC: German Marshall Fund of the United States. https://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep18906